الجمهورية اللبنانية Al-Jumhūriyyah al-Lubnāniyyah La république Libanaise Lebanese Republic
Flag Coat of arms
Motto: كلنا للوطن للعلى للعلم  (Arabic) "All for country, for glory, and the flag!"
Anthem: Kulluna lil-watan lil 'ula lil-'alam
Capital (and largest city)		Beirut 33°54′N, 35°32′E
Official languages		Arabic
Other common languages		French, English
Demonym		Lebanese
Government		Republic
-	President	Vacant
-	Prime Minister	Fouad Siniora
Independence		from France-administered League of Nations mandate
-	Declared	November 26, 1941
-	Recognized	November 22, 1943
Area
-	Total	10,452 km² (166th) 4,035 sq mi
-	Water (%)	1.6
Population
-	February 2008 estimate	4,196,453 (125th)
-	Density	358/km² (26th) 948/sq mi
GDP (PPP)		2007 estimate
-	Total	$41.96 billion (84rd)
-	Per capita	$19,100 (42th)
HDI (2007)		▼ 0.772 (medium) (88th)
Currency		Lebanese Lira (LL) (LBP)
Time zone		EET (UTC+2)
-	Summer (DST)	EEST (UTC+3)
Internet TLD		.lb
Calling code		+961

Lebanon (IPA: /ˈlɛbənɒn/) (Arabic: لبنان Lubnān), officially the Republic of Lebanon^[1] or Lebanese Republic^[2] (الجمهورية اللبنانية), is a religiously diverse, mountainous country in Western Asia, on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea. It is bordered by Syria to the north and east, and Israel to the south. Due to its sectarian diversity, Lebanon evolved a unique political system, known as confessionalism^when?, based on a community-based power-sharing mechanism.^[3] It was created when the ruling French mandatory powers expanded the borders of the former Maronite Christian autonomous Ottoman Mount Lebanon district.

The flag of Lebanon features a cedar in green against a white backdrop, bounded by two horizontal red stripes along the top and bottom. This is a reference to the famous cedars of Lebanon, that were mentioned in the verses of the Tanakh/Old Testament, mostly in Psalms and the Song of Songs.

Before the Lebanese Civil War (1975-1990), the country enjoyed a period of relative calm and prosperity, driven by the tourism, agriculture, and banking sectors of the economy. ^[4] It is considered the banking capital of the Levant and was widely known as the "Switzerland of the East" due to its financial power. Lebanon also attracted large numbers of tourists^[5] to the point that the capital Beirut became widely referred to as the "Paris of Western Asia."^[6]

Immediately following the end of the war, there were extensive efforts to revive the economy and rebuild national infrastructure.^[7] By early 2006, a considerable degree of stability had been achieved throughout much of the country, Beirut's reconstruction was almost complete,^[8] and an increasing number of foreign tourists were pouring into Lebanon's resorts.^[5]

Israeli air attacks during the 2006 war, however, caused widespread damage to Lebanon's infrastructure from July 21, 2006 until a ceasefire went into effect on August 14, 2006 and the country is still in the process of recovering.

Etymology

Faraya, Mount Lebanon.

A widespread explanation links the name Lebanon ("Lubnān" in standard Arabic; "Libnén" in local dialect) to the Phoenician and Aramaic root "LBN", which is linked to several closely-related meanings in various languages, such as "white" and "milk".^[9] "White" could be regarded as reference to the snow-capped Mount Lebanon.^[10] Occurrences of the name have been found in three of the twelve tablets of the Epic of Gilgamesh (2900 BC), the texts of the library of Ebla (2400 BC), and 71 times in the Old Testament.^[10][11][12] The name is even recorded in Ancient Egyptian as Rmnn, where r stood for Phoenician l.^[13]

History

Main article: History of Lebanon

Sarcophagus of Ahiram, king of Byblos, now in the National Museum of Beirut

Inscription in Greek on one of the tombs found in the Roman-Byzantine necropolis in Tyre

Ancient history

Main article: History of ancient Lebanon

The earliest known settlements in Lebanon date back to earlier than 5000 BC. Archaeologists have discovered in Byblos, which is considered to be the oldest continuously-inhabited city in the world,^[14] remnants of prehistoric huts with crushed limestone floors, primitive weapons, and burial jars which are evidence of the Neolithic and Chalcolithic fishing communities who lived on the shore of the Mediterranean Sea over 7,000 years ago.[5]

Lebanon was the homeland of the Phoenicians, a seafaring people that spread across the Mediterranean before the rise of Cyrus the Great.^[15] After two centuries of Persian rule, Macedonian ruler Alexander the Great attacked and burned Tyre, the most prominent Phoenician city. Throughout the subsequent centuries leading up to recent times, the country became part of numerous succeeding empires, among them Persian, Assyrian, Macedonian, Roman, Byzantine, Arab, Crusader, and Ottoman.

French mandate and independence

Main article: French Mandate of Lebanon

Lebanon was part of the Ottoman Empire for over 400 years, in a region known as Greater Syria,^[16] until 1918 when the area became a part of the French Mandate of Syria following World War I. On September 1, 1920, France formed the State of Greater Lebanon as one of several ethnic enclaves within Syria.^[17] Lebanon was a largely Christian (mainly Maronite) enclave but also included areas containing many Muslims and Druzes. On September 1, 1926, France formed the Lebanese Republic. The Republic was afterward a separate entity from Syria but still administered under the French Mandate of Syria. Lebanon gained independence in 1943, while France was occupied by Germany.^[18] General Henri Dentz, the Vichy High Commissioner for Syria and Lebanon, played a major role in the independence of the nation. The Vichy authorities in 1941 allowed Germany to move aircraft and supplies through Syria to Iraq where they were used against British forces. The United Kingdom, fearing that Nazi Germany would gain full control of Lebanon and Syria by pressure on the weak Vichy government, sent its army into Syria and Lebanon.

The flag of Greater Lebanon (1920-1943)

After the fighting ended in Lebanon, General Charles de Gaulle visited the area. Under various political pressures from both inside and outside Lebanon, de Gaulle decided to recognize the independence of Lebanon. On November 26, 1941 General Georges Catroux announced that Lebanon would become independent under the authority of the Free French government. Elections were held in 1943 and on November 8, 1943 the new Lebanese government unilaterally abolished the mandate. The French reacted by throwing the new government into prison. In the face of international pressure, the French released the government officials on November 22, 1943 and accepted the independence of Lebanon.

The allies kept the region under control until the end of World War II. The last French troops withdrew in 1946. Lebanon's unwritten National Pact of 1943 required that its president be Christian and its prime minister be Muslim.

Lebanon's history since independence has been marked by alternating periods of political stability and turmoil (including a civil conflict in 1958) interspersed with prosperity built on Beirut's position as a regional center for finance and trade.

1948 Arab-Israeli war

Main article: 1948 Arab-Israeli war

Five years after gaining independence, Lebanon joined the Arab League to invade Israel shortly after its declaration of independence.^[19][20] during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. It took over logistical support of the Arab Liberation Army after it found itself cut off from its bases in Syria while going on an attack on the newly-proclaimed Jewish State.^[20] The Lebanese army gained nothing during the war, and the Israeli army managed to conquer territory west of the Naphtali Mountains.^[19] After the defeat of the Arab Liberation Army in Operation Hiram,^[21] Lebanon accepted an armistice with Israel on March 23, 1949 and the conquered territory was returned. During the war, about 100,000 Palestinian refugees fled to Lebanon.

Civil war and beyond

Main article: Lebanese civil war

See also: 1982 Lebanon War

See also: List of attacks in Lebanon

In 1975, civil war broke out in Lebanon. The Lebanese Civil War lasted fifteen years, devastating the country's economy, and resulting in the massive loss of human life and property. It is estimated that 150,000 people were killed and another 200,000 maimed.^[22] The war ended in 1990 with the signing of the Taif Agreement and parts of Lebanon were left in ruins.^[23]

During the civil war, the Palestine Liberation Organization used Lebanon to launch attacks against Israel. Lebanon was twice invaded and occupied by the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) in 1978 and 1982,^[24] the PLO expelled in the second invasion. Israel remained in control of Southern Lebanon until 2000, when there was a general decision, led by Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak, to withdraw due to continuous guerrilla attacks executed by Hezbollah militants and a belief that Hezbollah activity would diminish and dissolve without the Israeli presence.^[25] The UN determined that the withdrawal of Israeli troops beyond the blue line was in accordance with UN Security Council Resolution 425, although a border region called the Shebaa Farms is still disputed. Hezbollah declared that it would not stop its operations against Israel until this area was liberated.^[26]

Recent history

On February 14, 2005, former Prime Minister Rafik Hariri was assassinated in a car bomb explosion near the Saint George Bay in Beirut.^[27] Leaders of the March 14 Alliance accused Syria of the attack^[28] due to its extensive military and intelligence presence in Lebanon, and the public rift between Hariri and Damascus over the Syrian-backed constitutional amendment extending pro-Syrian President Lahoud's term in office. Others, namely the March 8 Alliance and Syrian officials, claimed that the assassination may have been executed by the Israeli Mossad in an attempt to destabilize the country.^[29]

This incident triggered a series of demonstrations, known as Cedar Revolution, that demanded the withdrawal of Syrian troops from Lebanon and the establishment of an international commission to investigate the assassination. The United Nations Security Council unanimously adopted Resolution 1595 on April 7, 2005, which called for an investigation into the assassination of Rafik Hariri.^[30] The findings of the investigation were officially published on October 20, 2005 in the Mehlis report.^[31] Eventually, and under pressure from the international community, Syria began withdrawing its 15,000-strong army troops from Lebanon.^[32] By April 26, 2005, all uniformed Syrian soldiers had already crossed the border back to Syria.^[33] The Hariri assassination marked the beginning of a series of assassination attempts that led to the loss of many prominent Lebanese figures.

On July 12, 2006, Hezbollah captured two Israeli soldiers leading to a conflict, known in Lebanon as July War, that lasted until a United Nations-brokered ceasefire went into effect on 14 August 2006.

In October 2007, the last Lebanese president finished his second term and handed authority to the prime minister. Since then, there is no president as all parties are unable to agree on a suitable solution.

On May 09, 2008, Hezbollah militants, in an armed attack, took over Western Beirut.[6] The situation was described by sources as a "coup" and the situation is still developing.

Geography and climate

Main article: Geography of Lebanon

Lebanon from space. Snow cover can be seen on the western and eastern mountain ranges

Lebanon is located in Western Asia. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the west along a 225-kilometre (140 mi) coastline, by Syria to the east and north, and by Israel to the south. The Lebanon-Syria border stretches for 375 kilometres (233 mi) and the Lebanon-Israel border for 79 kilometres (49 mi). The border with the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights in Syria is disputed by Lebanon in a small area called Shebaa Farms, but the border has been demarcated by the United Nations.^[34]

Most of Lebanon's area is mountainous terrain,^[35] except for the narrow coastline and the Beqaa Valley, which plays an integral role in Lebanon's agriculture.

Lebanon has a moderate Mediterranean climate. In coastal areas, winters are generally cool and rainy whilst summers are hot and humid. In more elevated areas, temperatures usually drop below freezing during the winter with frequent, sometimes heavy, snow; summers, on the other hand, are warm and dry.^[36] Although most of Lebanon receives a relatively large amount of rainfall annually (compared to its arid surroundings), certain areas in north-eastern Lebanon receive little rainfall because the high peaks of the western mountain front block much of the rain clouds that originate over the Mediterranean Sea.^[37]

In ancient times, Lebanon housed large forests of the Cedars of Lebanon, which now serve as the country's national emblem.^[38] However, centuries of trading cedar trees, used by ancient mariners for boats, and the absence of any efforts to replant them have depleted Lebanon's once-flourishing cedar forests.^[38]

Governorates and districts

See also: Governorates of Lebanon and Districts of Lebanon

Lebanon is divided into six governorates (mohaafazaat, Arabic: محافظات —singular mohafazah, Arabic: محافظة) which are further subdivided into twenty-five districts (aqdya—singular: qadaa).^[39] The districts themselves are also divided into several municipalities, each enclosing a group of cities or villages. The governorates and their respective districts are listed below:

Demographics and religion

Main article: Demographics of Lebanon

No official census has been taken since 1932, reflecting the political sensitivity in Lebanon over confessional (i.e. religious) balance. The 2007 CIA World Fact Book, Lebanon entry, gives the following distribution: Muslim 54%, Christian 42% , other 4%. note: 17 religious sects recognized^[40] The numbers per religion vary from time to time. ^[41].

The number of those inhabiting Lebanon proper was estimated at 3,925,502 in July 2007.^[40] There are approximately 18 million people of Lebanese descent spread all over the world, most of them being Christian ( 80 - 90 %) Brazil having the largest Lebanese community abroad (8 Million).^[42] Argentina, Australia, Canada, Colombia, Ecuador, France, Spain, Germany, Great Britain, Mexico, Venezuela, USA, West Africa, Haiti, and the Dominican Republic also have large Lebanese communities.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Lebanon

The urban population in Lebanon is noted for its commercial enterprise.^[43] Over the course of time, emigration has yielded Lebanese "commercial networks" throughout the world.^[44] Lebanon has a high proportion of skilled labour comparable to most European nations and the highest among Arabic speaking countries.^[45]

Although Lebanon is ideally suited for agricultural activities in terms of water availability and soil fertility, as it possesses the highest proportion of cultivable land in the Arabic speaking world,^[46] it does not have a large agricultural sector. Attracting a mere 12% of the total workforce,^[47] agriculture is the least popular economic sector in Lebanon. It contributes approximately 11.7% of the country's GDP, also placing it in the lowest rank compared to other economic sectors. Major produce include apples, peaches, oranges, and lemons.^[48]

Lebanon's lack of raw materials for industry and its complete dependency on Arab countries for oil have made it difficult for the Lebanese to engage in significant industrial activity. As such, industry in Lebanon is mainly limited to small businesses concerned with reassembling and packaging imported parts. In 2004, industry ranked second in workforce, with 26% of the Lebanese working population,^[47] and second in GDP contribution, with 21% of Lebanon's GDP.^[48]

The Kadisha Valley is a World Heritage Site

A combination of beautiful climate, many historic landmarks and World Heritage Sites continues to attract large numbers of tourists to Lebanon annually, in spite of its political instability. In addition, Lebanon's strict financial secrecy and capitalist economy—unique in its area—have given it significant economic status among Arab countries. The thriving tourism and banking activities have naturally made the services sector the most important pillar of the Lebanese economy. The majority of the Lebanese workforce (nearly 65%)^[47] have preferred employment in the services sector, as a result of the abundant job opportunities and large paychecks. The GDP contribution, accordingly, is very large and amounts to roughly 67.3% of the annual Lebanese GDP.^[48]

The economy's dependence on services has always been an issue of great criticism and concern, as it leaves the country subject to the instability of this sector and the vagaries of international trade.

The 1975-1990 civil war seriously damaged Lebanon's economic infrastructure, cut national output by half, and all but ended Lebanon's position as a West Asian entrepôt and banking hub.^[40] The subsequent period of relative peace enabled the central government to restore control in Beirut, begin collecting taxes, and regain access to key port and government facilities. Economic recovery has been helped by a financially sound banking system and resilient small- and medium-scale manufacturers, with family remittances, banking services, manufactured and farm exports, and international aid as the main sources of foreign exchange.^[49]

Until the 2006 Lebanon War, Lebanon's economy witnessed excellent growth, with bank assets reaching over 75 billion dollars.^[50] By the end of the first half of 2006, the influx of tourists to Lebanon had already registered a 49.3% increase over 2005 figures.^[50] Market capitalization was also at an all time high, estimated at $10.9 billion at the end of the second quarter of 2006, just weeks before the fighting started.^[50]

Beirut's airport, Rafiq Hariri International Airport, re-opened in September 2006 and the efforts to revive the Lebanese economy have since been proceeding at a slow pace. Major contributors to the reconstruction of Lebanon include Saudi Arabia (with $US 1.5 billion pledged),^[51] the European Union (with about $1 billion)^[52] and a few other Gulf countries with contributions of up to $800 million.^[53]

Foreign Relations

Lebanon concluded negotiations on an association agreement with the European Union in late 2001, and both sides initialed the accord in January 2002. Lebanon also has bilateral trade agreements with several Arab states and is working toward accession to the World Trade Organization. Aside from Syria, Lebanon enjoys good relations with virtually all of the other Arab countries (despite historic tensions with Libya, the Palestinians, and Iraq), and hosted an Arab League Summit in March 2002 for the first time in more than 35 years. Lebanon also is a member of the Organization of Islamic Conference and maintains a close relationship with Iran, largely centered on Shi'a Muslim links. Lebanon is a member of the Francophone countries and hosted the Francophone Summit in October 2002.^[54]

Education

Schools

All Lebanese schools are required to follow a prescribed curriculum designed by the Ministry of Education. Private schools, approximately 1,400 in all,^[55] may also add more courses to their curriculum with approval from the Ministry of Education. The main subjects taught are mathematics, sciences, history, civics, geography, Arabic, and either French or English or both. The subjects gradually increase in difficulty and in number. Students in Grade 11, for example, usually study up to eighteen different subjects.

The government introduces a mild form of selectivity into the curriculum by giving 11^th graders choice between two "concentrations": sciences, humanities, and 12^th graders choose between four concentrations: life sciences, general sciences, sociology and economics, and humanities and literature. The choices in concentration do not include major changes in the number of subjects taken (if at all). However, subjects that fall out of the concentration are given less weight in grading and are less rigorous, while subjects that fall within the concentration are more challenging and contribute significantly to the final grade.

Students go through three academic phases:

• Elementary: Six years.
• Intermediate: Three years; students earn Intermediate Certification (Lebanese Brevet) at completion.
• Secondary: three years, students who pass official exams earn a Baccalaureate Certificate (Baccalauréat Libanais) in the concentration they chose in 12th grade. Students studying at French-system schools may also graduate with a French Baccalaureate that is considered equivalent to the Lebanese Baccalaureate.

These three phases are provided free to all students and the first eight years are, by law, compulsory.^[56] Nevertheless, this requirement currently falls short of being fully enforced.

Higher education

Following secondary school, Lebanese students may choose to study at a university, a college, or a vocational training institute. The number of years to complete each program varies. While the Lebanese educational system offer a very high quality and international class of education, the local employment market lacks of enough opportunities, thus encouraging many of the young educated to travel abroad.

Lebanon has 41 nationally-accredited universities, several of which are internationally recognized.^[57][58] The American University of Beirut (AUB) and the Université Saint-Joseph (USJ) were the first Anglophone and the first Francophone universities to open in Lebanon, respectively.^[59][60] The forty-one universities, both public and private, largely operate in French, or English as these are the most widely used foreign languages in Lebanon.^[61]

At the English universities, students who have graduated from an American-style high school program enter at the freshman level to earn their baccalaureate equivalence from the Lebanese Ministry of Higher Education. This qualifies them to continue studying at the higher levels. Such students are required to have already taken the SAT I and the SAT II upon applying to college, in lieu of the official exams. On the other hand, students who have graduated from a school that follows the Lebanese educational system are directly admitted to the sophomore year. These students are still required to take the SAT I, but not the SAT II. The University academic degrees for the first stage are the Bachelor or the Licence, for the second stage are the Master or the DEA and the third stage is the doctorate.

The United Nations assigned Lebanon an Education Index of 0.84 in 2005.^[62]

Language

Lebanon's official language is Arabic per article 11 of the Constitution.^[63] The law allows French to be used for some official purposes, and French is therefore considered as an administrative and national language. The majority of Lebanese people speak Arabic and either French or English fluently.

The colloquial variant of Arabic used in Lebanon is one part of a grouping of dialects called Levantine Arabic, differing in a way from the literary Modern Standard Arabic, owing its historical blend to Arabic, Turkish, and the Syriac dialect of Aramaic. Lebanese people usually tend to mix a variant of French and English when speaking Arabic. In recent years, it has become increasingly common for Lebanese people, especially the better educated, to converse in a combination of Arabic, English and French whereby the same sentence would include words or expressions from the different languages.

Regional influences and occupations throughout the centuries could possibly explain why Lebanese people speak so many languages, even incorporating them into their own. In addition, due to the importance of the Lebanese diaspora and business interests of Lebanese worldwide, it has always been important to master languages other than Arabic.

In the Christian communities, until the Lebanese Civil War, it was seen as a mark of status to not speak Arabic.^{citation needed} The reason for this could possibly be that Christians generally were educated in many of the French educational institutions and so a general Francophonic class emerged in their communities. English has been making significant headway in the past two decades. However, as the Muslim population increased in previously Christian areas, Arabic in public is omnipresent, not merely commonplace.^{citation needed}

Culture

Main article: Culture of Lebanon

Overview

Phoenicia and its colonies.

The Triumphal Arch in Tyre.

The area including modern Lebanon has been home to various civilizations and cultures for thousands of years. Originally home to the Phoenicians, and then subsequently conquered and occupied by the Assyrians, the Persians, the Greeks, the Romans, the Arabs, the Ottoman Turks and most recently the French, Lebanese culture has over the millennia evolved by borrowing from all of these groups. Lebanon's diverse population, composed of different ethnic and religious groups, has further contributed to the country's lively festivals, highly successful musical styles and literature as well as their rich cuisine, and numerous violent clashes amongst different religious and ethnic groups. When compared to the rest of the Western Asia, Lebanese society as a whole is well educated, and as of 2003 87.4% of the population was literate.^[64] Lebanese society is very modern and similar to certain cultures of Mediterranean Europe. It is often considered to serve as Europe's gateway to Western Asia as well as the Asian gateway to the Western World.^[65]

Cuisine

Main article: Lebanese Cuisine

The Lebanese Cuisine is considered to be a Mediterranean basically Levantine Arabic delicacy consisting of a variety of fresh vegetarian recipes, salads and stews all seasoned with a flavorsome combination of herbs and spices. One of the most world known Lebanese specialties is called the Maza, also written "